The European Refugee Crisis and Syria Explained

獲獎美國記者揭露了ISIS和「反恐戰爭」的真正起源

台湾·1945 第一集 还我河山【Taiwan1945 EP01】

南沙美濟島 西沙永興島

永興島位於中國南海西沙群島東部的宣德群島（西沙群島西部稱永樂群島）的中部。該島由珊瑚沙堆積而形成，島的東西長約1950米，南北寬約1350米，原陸地面積約2.6平方公里，經過陸續填海造陸後，現在陸地面積約3.2平方公里^{[來源請求]}，平均海拔高度為5米^[2]，四周沙堤環繞，島中部低地是潟湖乾涸而成。島上植被茂盛。永興島是西沙群島中最大的島嶼^[3]。中國漁民俗稱「貓峙」或「巴注」。 1946年，中華民國政府派遣海軍「永興」號軍艦接收西沙群島，並以艦名命名島名以示紀念。永興島是中華人民共和國海南省三沙市人民政府的駐地，成為西沙群島、中沙群島、南沙群島的行政中心，是西沙群島的交通中心。永興島上還有西沙區永興村，以及永興邊防派出所、西沙雨水班。

永興島擁有中國南海地區（包括西沙、中沙、南沙、東沙）數個第一：面積最大(2015年6月10日，南沙美濟島面積達5.5平方公里，是南海諸島第一大島。)、原始面積最大、最大機場、最大港口、最多人口、海拔最高點（原最高的石島由於2014年填海造地成為永興島的一部分）。

永興島

青蒿素

物理性狀：白色針狀晶體，味苦。在丙酮、醋酸乙酯、氯仿、苯及冰醋酸中易溶，在乙醇和甲醇、乙醚中可溶解，微溶於冷石油醚，在水中幾乎不溶。熔點156-157℃，旋光度+69（c=0.5，CHCl ₃）。

化學性質：極易被硫酸亞鐵還原，易於三苯磷反應。常規狀態下較為穩定，但遇強鹼則很快溶解，其內酯環打開的同時發生重排和分解。^[1]

作用及用途：藥理學研究表明青蒿素對瘧原蟲紅細胞內期有直接殺滅作用，對組織期無效，在機體內吸收快，分佈廣，排泄快。主要用於間日瘧、惡性瘧的症狀控制，以及耐氯喹蟲株的治療，也可用以治療凶險型惡性瘧，如腦型、黃疸型等。亦可用以治療系統性紅斑狼瘡與盤狀紅斑狼瘡。

青蒿素- 研究歷史 

黃花蒿圖冊

中國於1969年開始抗瘧藥研究。歷經380多次鼠瘧篩選，1971年10月取得中藥青蒿素篩選的成功。1972年從中藥青蒿素中分離得到抗瘧有效單體，命名為青蒿素，對鼠瘧、猴瘧的原蟲抑制率達到100%。

1973年經臨床研究取得與實驗室一致的結果，抗瘧新藥青蒿素由此誕生。^[2]

1981年10月在北京召開的由世界衛生組織主辦的“青蒿素”國際會議上，中國《青蒿素的化學研究》的發言，引起與會代表極大的興趣，並認為“這一新的發現更重要的意義是在於將為進一步設計合成新藥指出方向”。

1986年，青蒿素獲得新一類新藥證書，雙氫青蒿素也獲一類新藥證書。這些成果分別獲得國家發明獎和全國十大科技成就獎。

2011年9月23日，青蒿素的研究者屠呦呦獲得美國紐約拉斯克獎，這是中國科學家首次獲得這一國際醫學大獎。^[3]

2011年11月15日，中國中醫科學院在京舉行“2011年科技工作大會”。會上授予屠呦呦中國中醫科學院傑出貢獻獎，獎勵青蒿素研究團隊100萬元人民幣。^[4]

2012年7月4日，上海交通大學宣布，在世界上首次實現了抗瘧藥物——青蒿素的常規人工化學合成。^[5]

青蒿素等抗瘧藥在非洲等地廣泛使用，在與瘧疾的抗擊中，中國藥物獲得非洲國家的廣泛讚譽，非洲的抗瘧藥主要來自中國。

青蒿素- 主要來源 

青蒿素來源主要是從黃花蒿中直接提取得到；或提取黃花蒿中含量較高的青蒿酸，然後半合成得到。

黃花蒿圖冊

除黃花蒿外，尚未發現含有青蒿素的其它天然植物資源。黃花蒿雖然系世界廣布品種，但青蒿索含景隨產地不同差異極大。研究顯示，除中國重慶東部、福建、廣西、海南部分地區外，世界絕大多數地區生產的黃花蒿中的青蒿素含量都很低，無利用價值。^[6]據國家有關部門調查，在全球範圍內，只有中國重慶酉陽地區武睦山脈生長的青蒿素才具有工業提煉價值。對這種獨有的藥物資源，國家有關部委從20世紀80年代開始就明文規定對青蒿素的原植物(青蒿)、種子、乾鮮全草及青蒿素原料藥一律禁止出口。

青蒿素- 提取工藝 

從青蒿中提取青蒿素的方法是以萃取原理為基礎，主要有乙醚浸提法和溶劑汽油浸提法。揮髮油主要採用水蒸汽蒸餾提取，減壓蒸餾分離，其工藝為：投料—加水—蒸餾—冷卻—油水分離—精油；非揮發性成分主要採用有機溶劑提取，柱層析及重結晶分離，基本工藝為：乾燥—破碎—浸泡、萃取（反復進行）—濃縮提取液—麤品—精製。

化學合成

半合成路線：從青蒿酸為原料出發，經過五步反應得到青蒿素，總得率約為35～50%。
第一步：青蒿酸在重氮甲烷/碘甲烷/酸催化下與甲醇反應，再在氯化鎳存在的條件下，被硼氫化鈉選擇性還原得到二氫青蒿酸甲酯；
第二步：二氫青蒿酸甲酯在四氫呋喃或乙醚溶液中用氫化鋁鋰還原成青蒿醇；
第三步：青蒿醇在甲醇/二氯甲烷/氯仿/四氯化碳溶液中被臭氧氧化後得到過氧化物，抽乾後再在二甲苯中用對甲苯磺酸處理得到環狀烯醚；
第四步：環狀烯醚溶解於溶劑中，在光敏劑玫瑰紅/亞甲基藍/竹紅菌素等存在下進行光氧化合生成二氧四環中間體，再用酸處理得到脫羧青蒿素；
第五步：脫羧青蒿素在四氧化釕氧化體系或鉻酸類氧化劑的作用下氧化得到青蒿素。
全合成路線：可由多種路線對青蒿素進行全合成。如Schmil等1983年報導了一條應用關鍵化合物烯醇醚在低溫下的光氧化反應引進過氧基的全合成路線，反應以（-)-2-異薄荷醇為原料，保留原料中的六元環，環上三條側鏈烷基化，形成中間體，最後環合成含過氧橋的倍半萜內酯。許杏祥等於1986年報導了青蒿素的化學合成途徑，其合成以R-(+)-2香草醛為原料，經十四步合成青蒿素。

青蒿素- 合成方法 

半合成路線

從青蒿酸為原料出發，經過五步反應得到青蒿素，總得率約為35%～50%。

第一步：青蒿酸在重氮甲烷/碘甲烷/酸催化下與甲醇反應，再在氯化鎳存在的條件下，被硼氫化鈉選擇性還原得到二氫青蒿酸甲酯；

第二步：二氫青蒿酸甲酯在四氫呋喃或乙醚溶液中用氫化鋁鋰還原成青蒿醇；

第三步：青蒿醇在甲醇 / 二氯甲烷 /氯仿/四氯化碳溶液中被臭氧氧化後得到過氧化物，抽乾後再在二甲苯中用對甲苯磺酸處理得到環狀烯醚；

第四步：環狀烯醚溶解於溶劑中，在光敏劑玫瑰紅/亞甲基藍/ 竹紅菌素等存在下進行光氧化合生成二氧四環中間體，再用酸處理得到脫羧青蒿素；

第五步：脫羧青蒿素在四氧化釕氧化體系或鉻酸類氧化劑的作用下氧化得到青蒿素。

全合成路線：可由多種路線對青蒿素進行全合成。如Schmil等1983年報導了一條應用關鍵化合物烯醇醚在低溫下的光氧化反應引進過氧基的全合成路線，反應以(-)-2-異薄荷醇為原料，保留原料中的六元環，環上三條側鏈烷基化，形成中間體，最後環合成含過氧橋的倍半萜內酯。許杏祥等於1986年報導了青蒿素的化學合成途徑，其合成以R-(+)-2香草醛為原料，經十四步合成青蒿素。

生物合成

青蒿素等倍半萜類的生物合成在細胞質中進行，途徑屬於植物類異戊二烯代謝途徑，可分​​為三大步：由乙酸形成FPP（法尼基焦磷酸），合成倍半萜，再內酯化形成青蒿素。FPP→4,11-二烯倍半萜→青蒿酸→二氫青蒿酸→二氧青蒿酸過氧化物→青蒿素。在青蒿芽、青蒿毛狀根和青蒿髮根農桿菌等培養體系中進行的青蒿素合成技術極有可能被應用於工業生產。

流動化學辦法

德國波茨坦市馬普學會膠體與界面研究所的化學家Peter Seeberger及其博士後Francois Lévesque使用一種流動化學的辦法，產生青蒿素，經提純後，其產量可達40%。^[7] 

青蒿素- 衍生物 

蒿甲醚圖冊

青蒿素由於存在近期復燃性高、在油中和水中的溶解度低以及難以製成合適的劑型等不足，需對其結構進行改造，以期在保持青蒿素優良藥理作用基礎上開發新藥，進一步改善和提高藥效。而合成青蒿素衍生物蒿甲醚、蒿乙醚、青蒿琥酯、二氫青蒿素等克服了青蒿素復燃率高的弊病。1、蒿甲醚。其抗瘧作用為青蒿素的10至20倍，其開發成功的劑型蒿甲醚注射液為主要含蒿甲醚的無色或淡黃色澄明滅菌油溶液。

2、青蒿琥酯。是唯一的能製成水溶性製劑的青蒿素有效衍生物，給藥非常方便。作為抗瘧藥，不但效價高，而且不易產生耐受性。

3、雙氫青蒿素。比青蒿素有更強的抗瘧作用，它由青蒿素經硼氫化鉀還原而獲得。

青蒿素- 藥理活性 

被瘧原蟲破壞的紅細胞圖冊

青蒿素發揮藥理作用分兩步：

1、活化：青蒿素被瘧原蟲體內的鐵催化，其結構中的過氧橋裂解，產生自由基。

2、烷基化：第一步所產生的自由基與瘧原蟲蛋白髮生絡合，形成共價鍵，使瘧原蟲蛋白失去功能，從而死亡。

除此之外，青蒿素還具有其他多種藥理活性：1、抗瘧作用——通過產生自由基，對惡性瘧原蟲紅內期的生物膜產生嚴重破壞作用，或與原蟲蛋白結合，使之死亡。

2、抗卡氏肺孢子蟲肺炎作用——青蒿素主要破壞卡氏肺孢子蟲膜系結構，引起孢子蟲滋養體胞漿及包囊內出現空泡，線粒體腫脹，核膜破裂，內質網腫脹，囊內小體溶解破壞等超微結構的改變。

3、保護肺組織作用——青蒿素及其衍生物可能通過降低膿毒症大鼠肺組織局部的內毒素（LPS）水平，抑制和減少了腫瘤壞死因子（TNF-α）、白細胞介素-6（IL-6）等促炎細胞因子的表達和釋放，進而減輕肺組織的損傷。

4、抗孕作用——青蒿素類藥對胚胎有較高的選擇性毒性，較低劑量即可使胚胎死亡而導致流產，有可能被開發為人工流產藥物。

5、對腫瘤的作用——二氫青蒿素對白血病、黑色素瘤、結腸癌、前列腺癌和乳腺癌細胞株高度敏感，能顯著下調K562細胞血管內皮生長因子（VEGF）蛋白和mRNA表達，有效抑制K562細胞的增殖。

6、抗血吸蟲作用——其抗血吸蟲活性基團是過氧橋，其藥用機理是影響蟲體的糖代謝。

7、治療弓形蟲感染作用——青蒿素主要作用於蟲體細胞膜、線粒體及細胞核，繼而廣泛損傷其膜系結構，造成核膜斷裂、線粒體腫脹、空泡樣變性、內質網擴張甚至出現核碎裂、核溶解現象。

8、對心血管的作用——青蒿素能明顯對抗結紮冠脈引起的心律失常，可使氯化鈣、氯仿引起的心律失常發作時間明顯推遲，室顫明顯減少。

9、抗纖維化作用——與其抑製成纖維細胞增殖，降低膠原合成，抗組胺促膠原分解有關。

10、對免疫系統的作用——青蒿素能減少原蟲感染動物IgG含量，使脾臟重量減輕，血中補體C3和血清總補體含量降低，控制血空斑和玫瑰花結形成細胞。

11、其他作用——二氫青蒿素對杜氏利甚曼原蟲有顯著抑製作用並呈劑量相關性。青蒿提取物還可殺滅陰道毛滴蟲和溶組織阿米巴滋養體。

青蒿素- 成品藥物 

蒿甲醚片（膠囊、注射液）

蒿甲醚注射液圖冊

均為蒿甲醚類抗瘧藥。

功效主治：適用於各型瘧疾，但主要用於抗氯喹惡性瘧的治療和凶險型惡性瘧的搶救。

複方青蒿安乃近片

功能主治：用於發熱、鼻塞、咽喉腫痛、咳嗽、四肢酸痛及流行性感冒引起的症狀。  

複方青蒿噴霧劑

由青蒿、黃芩、三七等藥材配伍而成，從藥材成分中提取有效成分生產的中藥製劑。

功效主治：具有涼血、止痛、活血化瘀、生肌等功效，能有效治療炎性外痔、血栓性外痔、內痔脫出者及頑固性痔瘡有較好的治療效果。

青蒿常山顆粒

獸藥。

功效主治：抗球蟲。主治雞球蟲病。

青蒿素- 不良反應 

1、少數病人出現輕度噁心、嘔吐、腹瀉。

2、個別病人可出現一過性轉氨酶升高及輕度皮疹。

3、肌肉注射部位較淺時可致局部疼痛與硬結。

4、過量可出現紅細胞減少、外周網織紅細胞消失、心肌損傷與腎上皮細胞腫脹。

5、有胚胎毒性，孕婦慎用。

美軍訓練影片Awesome Javelin Missile Shooting and Massive US Snipers/Soldiers Assault...

學習語言的625 基本詞彙

關鍵:

分類的話 (I.E. “動物”) 指定一個小標C (這樣Ç). 了解這些話字使用 2-3 您的識字圖片/文字 (I.E. “動物=狗, 貓, 魚......“).

輕鬆羞愧的圖像 (即, '女孩'看起來像'女兒') 帶星號的指定 (這樣*). 這些團體的話，將使用非常相似的圖像 (女孩/女兒, 結婚/婚禮). 了解這些詞加入個人觸摸 (即, 你可能知道的'女兒'的名字) 或額外的兩個詞或在您的目標語言 (即, 女兒 可能去 母親/父親).

動物: 狗, 貓, 魚, 鳥, 牛, 豬, 鼠標, 馬, 翼, 動物Ç

運輸: 火車, 機, 汽車, 卡車, 自行車, 總線, 船, 船, 胎, 汽油, 發動機, (火車) 票, 運輸Ç

位置: 城市, 房子, 房間, 街/路, 機場, 火車站, 橋, 旅館, 餐廳, 農場, 法庭, 學校, 辦公室, 房間, 鎮, 大學, 俱樂部, 酒吧, 公園, 營, 專賣店/店鋪, 劇院, 文庫, 醫院, 教堂, 市場, 國家 (美國, 法國, 等等), 建築, 地面, 空間 (太空), 銀行, 位置Ç

服裝: 有, 穿著, 訴訟, 裙子, 襯衫, T恤衫, 褲子, 鞋, 口袋, 外套, 污點, 服裝Ç

顏色: 紅色, 綠色, 藍色 (光/暗), 黃, 棕色, 粉紅色, 橙, 黑色, 白, 灰色, 顏色Ç

人: *, 女兒*, 母親, 父親, 親 (=母親/父親), 嬰兒, 人, 女人, 兄弟*, 姐姐*, 家庭, 爺爺, 奶奶, 丈夫*, 妻子*, 王, 女王, 總統, 鄰居, 男孩, 女孩, 孩子 (=男孩/女孩), 成人 (=男人/女人), 人的 (≠動物), 朋友 (添加好友的名字), 受害者, 播放機, 風扇, 人群, 人Ç

工作: 老師, 學生, 律師, 醫生, 病人, 服務員, 秘書, 牧師, 警察, 軍隊, 士兵, 藝術家, 作者, 經理, 記者, 演員, 工作Ç

社會: 宗教, 天堂, 地獄, 死亡, 醫藥, 錢, 美元, 法案, 結婚*, 婚紗*, 團隊, 競賽 (種族), 性別 (行為), 性別 (性別), 謀殺, 監獄, 技術, 能源, 是, 和平, 攻擊, 選舉, 雜誌, 報紙, 毒, 槍, 運動, 競賽 (運動), 行使, 球, 遊戲, 價格, 合同, 藥物, 簽署, 科學, 上帝

藝術: 樂隊, 歌曲, 儀器 (音樂), 音樂, 電影, 藝術

飲料: 咖啡, 茶, 酒, 啤酒, 果汁, 水, 牛奶, 飲料Ç

食物: 雞蛋, 奶酪, 麵包, 湯, 蛋糕, 雞, 豬肉, 牛肉, 蘋果, 香蕉, 橙, 檸檬, 玉米, 米, 油, 種子, 刀, 勺子, 叉, 盤, 杯, 早餐, 午餐, 晚餐, 糖, 鹽, 瓶, 食物Ç

家: 表, 椅子, 床, 夢想, 窗口, 通過, 臥室, 廚房, 浴室, 鉛筆, 筆, 照片, 肥皂, 書, 頁, 關鍵, 畫, 信, 注意, 牆, 紙, 地板, 天花板, 屋頂, 水池, 鎖, 電話, 花園, 碼, 針, 袋, 箱, 禮物, 卡, 環, 工具

電子: 時鐘, 燈, 風扇, 手機, 網絡, 電腦, 節目 (電腦), 筆記本電腦, 屏幕, 相機, 電視, 無線電

身體: 頭, 頸部, 面對, 鬍子, 頭髮, 眼, 口*, 唇*, 鼻子, 牙齒, 耳, 撕 (下降), 舌頭, 背面, 對, 手指, 腳, 手, 腿, 胳膊, 肩, 心臟, 血, 大腦, 膝蓋, 汗, 疾病, 骨, 聲音, 皮膚, 身體

性質: 無論是*, 海洋*, 河, 山, 雨, 雪, 樹, 太陽, 月亮, 世界, 地球, 森林, 天空, 廠, 風, 土壤/地球, 花, 谷, 根, 湖, 明星, 草, 葉, 空氣, 沙, 海灘, 波, 火, 冰, 島, 山, 熱, 性質Ç

物料: 玻璃, 金屬, 塑料, 木, 石, 鑽石, 粘土, 灰塵, 金, 銅, 銀, 材料Ç

數學/測量: 米, 厘米, 公斤, 英寸, 腳, 英鎊, 一半, 圈, 方, 溫度, 日, 重量, 邊緣, 角落

其他名詞: 地圖, 點, 輔音, 元音, 光, 聲音, 是, 沒有, 片, 疼痛, 外傷, 孔, 圖像, 模式, 名詞Ç, 動詞Ç, 形容詞Ç

注意: 使用這些過去三年 (名詞, 動詞, 形容詞) 作為標籤，以幫助區分非常相似的前瞻性的話 (即, 到 (動詞), 死亡 (名詞), 死 (形容詞))

路線: 頂部, 底部, 側, 前, 背面, 外, 裡面, 上, 下, 離開, 權, 直, 北, 南, 東, 西, 方向Ç

注意: 您可能無法找到所有這些在你的詞彙, 即使你做，你可能會遇到麻煩找到圖片. 這很好. 跳過他們現在, or use my collection of images for directions and prepositions at Fluent-Forever.com/Appendix5

四季: 夏天, 春天, 冬季, 下降, 季節Ç

數字: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 40, 41, 42, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 62, 70, 71, 72, 80, 81, 82, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101, 102, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 10000, 100000, 百萬, 十億, 1ST, 2ND, 3路, 4日, 5日, 數Ç

注意: 如果你搜索號碼 (一 (一), 二 (二), 三 (三)), 你會發現圖片對象 (1 蘋果, 2 猴子, 等等). 這通常工作到 10. 然後搜索數字 (10, 11, 12). 你會發現五顏六色的數字, 地址標牌, 等. 使用這些圖片 (酒店房間的圖片 #33) 而不是文本 (#33); 更容易記住這些圖片，他們不容易混合.

個月: 一月, 二月, 三月, 四月, 五月, 六月, 七月, 八月, 九月, 十月, 十一月, 十二月

注意: 你通常會發現圖片節假日和天氣. 加在每月的數量 (#1-12) 以獲得更多的具體.

星期幾: 星期一, 星期二, 星期三, 星期四, 星期五, 星期六, 星期天

注意: 你通常會發現人去上班在週一和週五/週六聚會的照片, 等. 為了獲得更多的具體, 灰色的週末，並表示這一天你想使用圖像的週歷. I’ll find a few good calendars to use and post them 這裡 in the near future.

時間: 年, 月, 星期, 日, 小時, 分鐘, 第二 , 上午, 下午, 黃昏, 夜, 時間Ç

注意: 你會發現圖片的時鐘和日曆. 如果需要的話, 在另一時分定義每個時分, I.E. 60 x 分鐘 = 1 ___ (現在), 1 現在 = 60 所述____ (分鐘).不要擔心複數形式 (你不需要的詞“分​​鐘”)

動詞: 工作, 玩, 走, 運行, 驅動, 飛, 游泳, 去Ç, 停止, 遵循, 認為, 說/說, 吃, 喝, 殺, 在, 微笑, 笑, 哭, 購買*, 交*, 出售*, 射擊(一個槍), 學習, 跳, 氣味, 聽到* (聲音), 聽* (音樂), 味道, 觸摸, 看 (鳥), 看 (電視), 吻, 燒, 融化, 挖, 爆炸, 坐, 站, 愛, 經過, 切, 打, 躺, 跳舞, 睡覺, 醒來, 唱, 算, 結婚, 祈禱, 贏, 失去, 混合/攪拌, 彎曲, 洗, 煮, 打開, 關閉, 寫, 叫, 轉, 建立, 教, 增長, 畫, 養活, 抓, 扔, 清潔, 發現, 下降, 推, 拉, 攜帶, 打破, 穿, 掛, 搖, 簽署, 擊敗, 抬

注意: 動詞, 你可能需要學習語言的字為“動詞”，並把它添加到任何動詞，可以偽裝成一個名詞 (親吻 與 一個吻). 基本上, 兩個人接吻圖片, 加字 “動詞” 下, 和噗, 你已經有了一個非常明確的 “接吻。”

形容詞: 長, 短 (長), 高大, 短 (與身材), 寬, 窄, 大/大, 小/小, 慢, 快, 熱, 冷, 溫暖, 涼爽, 新, 老 (新), 年輕, 老 (年輕), 好, 壞, 濕, 幹, 生病, 健康, 響, 安靜, 快樂, 傷心, 美麗, 醜, 聾, 盲人, 漂亮, 意味著, 豐富, 差, 厚, 薄, 昂貴, 廉價, 平, 彎曲, 男性, 女性, 緊, 松, 高, 低, 軟, 硬, 深, 淺, 清潔, 臟, 強烈, 弱, 死, 活著, 重, 光 (重), 暗, 光 (暗), 核, 著名

注意: 對於這些形容詞幾個, 你可能需要學習你的語言的話，“形容詞”，並把它添加在模棱兩可的情況下 (即, 清潔 與一 清潔 房間).

代詞: 我, 您 (單數), 他, 她, 它, 我們, 您 (複數, as in “y’all”), 他們.

注意: 加入他們之前，請務必閱讀這些在你的語法書. 語言成許多類別劃分代詞. 匈牙利文, 例如, 有 六 “你的話” (奇異的非正式, 奇異正式 (熟人), 奇異官方 (為教師, 警察, 官僚), 複數非正式, 等等), 取決於你如何計算, 日本無論是有 沒有 代詞或 噸 的 代詞. 我們需要有一些代詞 現在 為了應對語法 後來, 所以你要找到至少幾句指自己或別人. 你會發現一個很好的解釋代詞 (和它們的列表) 在開始你的語法書. 請注意，你不這樣做 還需要 他, 她的, 他的, 他們的, 等. 以後，我們會得到他們, 當我們討論語法.

你怎麼不學習這些翻譯? 使用圖片的人指著自己/對方. 有體面的代名詞圖片谷歌圖片, and I’ve gotten some better onescommissioned here. 使用這些圖片, 如果你的語言, 像匈牙利, 不同種類的關係有不同類型的代詞 (即, 朋友與熟人), 然後需要幾分鐘，有些人認為你會使用這些代詞. 使用他們的名字，你的識字.

Key:

Category words (i.e. ‘animal’) are designated with a little superscript C (Like thisC). Learn these words word by using 2-3 other pictures/words on your flashcards (i.e. ‘animal = dog, cat, fish…’).

Easily Confounded Images (i.e., ‘girl’ looks like ‘daughter’) are designated with an asterisk (Like this*). These are groups of words that will use very similar images (girl/daughter, marriage/wedding). Learn these words by adding a personal touch (i.e., the name of a ‘daughter’ you might know) or an additional word or two in your target language (i.e., daughter might go with mother/father).

Animal: dog, cat, fish, bird, cow, pig, mouse, horse, wing, animalC

Transportation: train, plane, car, truck, bicycle, bus, boat, ship, tire, gasoline, engine, (train) ticket, transportationC

Location: city, house, apartment, street/road, airport, train station, bridge, hotel, restaurant, farm, court, school, office, room, town, university, club, bar, park, camp, store/shop, theater, library, hospital, church, market, country (USA, France, etc.), building, ground, space (outer space), bank, locationC

Clothing: hat, dress, suit, skirt, shirt, T-shirt, pants, shoes, pocket, coat, stain, clothingC

Color: red, green, blue (light/dark), yellow, brown, pink, orange, black, white, gray, colorC

People: son*, daughter*, mother, father, parent (= mother/father), baby, man, woman, brother*, sister*, family, grandfather, grandmother, husband*, wife*, king, queen, president, neighbor, boy, girl, child (= boy/girl), adult (= man/woman), human (≠ animal), friend (Add a friend’s name), victim, player, fan, crowd, personC

Job: Teacher, student, lawyer, doctor, patient, waiter, secretary, priest, police, army, soldier, artist, author, manager, reporter, actor, jobC

Society: religion, heaven, hell, death, medicine, money, dollar, bill, marriage*, wedding*, team, race (ethnicity), sex (the act), sex (gender), murder, prison, technology, energy, war, peace, attack, election, magazine, newspaper, poison, gun, sport, race (sport), exercise, ball, game, price, contract, drug, sign, science, God

Art: band, song, instrument (musical), music, movie, art

Beverages: coffee, tea, wine, beer, juice, water, milk, beverageC

Food: egg, cheese, bread, soup, cake, chicken, pork, beef, apple, banana, orange, lemon, corn, rice, oil, seed, knife, spoon, fork, plate, cup, breakfast, lunch, dinner, sugar, salt, bottle, foodC

Home: table, chair, bed, dream, window, door, bedroom, kitchen, bathroom, pencil, pen, photograph, soap, book, page, key, paint, letter, note, wall, paper, floor, ceiling, roof, pool, lock, telephone, garden, yard, needle, bag, box, gift, card, ring, tool

Electronics: clock, lamp, fan, cell phone, network, computer, program (computer), laptop, screen, camera, television, radio

Body: head, neck, face, beard, hair, eye, mouth*, lip*, nose, tooth, ear, tear (drop), tongue, back, toe, finger, foot, hand, leg, arm, shoulder, heart, blood, brain, knee, sweat, disease, bone, voice, skin, body

Nature: sea*, ocean*, river, mountain, rain, snow, tree, sun, moon, world, Earth, forest, sky, plant, wind, soil/earth, flower, valley, root, lake, star, grass, leaf, air, sand, beach, wave, fire, ice, island, hill, heat, natureC

Materials: glass, metal, plastic, wood, stone, diamond, clay, dust, gold, copper, silver, materialC

Math/Measurements: meter, centimeter, kilogram, inch, foot, pound, half, circle, square, temperature, date, weight, edge, corner

Misc Nouns: map, dot, consonant, vowel, light, sound, yes, no, piece, pain, injury, hole, image, pattern, nounC, verbC, adjectiveC 

Note: Use these last three (noun, verb, adjective) as labels to help distinguish between very similar-looking words (i.e., to die (verb), death (noun), dead (adjective))

Directions: top, bottom, side, front, back, outside, inside, up, down, left, right, straight, north, south, east, west, directionC

Note: You may not find all of these in your glossary, and you may have trouble finding pictures even if you do. That’s fine. Skip them for now, or use my collection of images for directions and prepositions at Fluent-Forever.com/Appendix5

Seasons: Summer, Spring, Winter, Fall, seasonC

Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 40, 41, 42, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 62, 70, 71, 72, 80, 81, 82, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101, 102, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 10000, 100000, million, billion, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, numberC

Note: If you search for a number (uno (one), dos (two), tres (three)), you’ll find pictures of objects (1 apple, 2 monkeys, etc.). This usually works until 10. Then search for the digits (10, 11, 12). You’ll find colorful numerals, address signs, etc. Use these images (picture of hotel room #33) instead of text (#33); these pictures easier to remember and they don’t get mixed up as easily.

Months: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

Note: You’ll usually find pictures of holidays and weather. Add in the number of each month (#1-12) to get more specific.

Days of the week: Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday

Note: You’ll usually find pictures of people going to work on Mondays and partying on Fridays/Saturdays, etc. To get more specific, use an image of a weekly calendar with weekends greyed out and indicate which day you want. I’ll find a few good calendars to use and post them here in the near future.

Time: year, month, week, day, hour, minute, second , morning, afternoon, evening, night, timeC

Note: You’ll find pictures of clocks and calendars. If needed, define each time division in terms of another time division, i.e. 60 x minuto = 1 ___ (ora), 1 ora = 60 x ____ (minuto). Don’t worry about plural forms (you don’t need the word for “minutes” yet)

Verbs: work, play, walk, run, drive, fly, swim, goC, stop, follow, think, speak/say, eat, drink, kill, die, smile, laugh, cry, buy*, pay*, sell*, shoot(a gun), learn, jump, smell, hear* (a sound), listen* (music), taste, touch, see (a bird), watch (TV), kiss, burn, melt, dig, explode, sit, stand, love, pass by, cut, fight, lie down, dance, sleep, wake up, sing, count, marry, pray, win, lose, mix/stir, bend, wash, cook, open, close, write, call, turn, build, teach, grow, draw, feed, catch, throw, clean, find, fall, push, pull, carry, break, wear, hang, shake, sign, beat, lift

Note: For verbs, you’ll probably need to learn your language’s word for “verb” and add it to any verb that could masquerade as a noun (to kiss vs a kiss). Basically, get a picture of two people kissing, add the word “Verb” underneath, and poof, you’ve got a pretty clear “to kiss.”

Adjectives: long, short (long), tall, short (vs tall), wide, narrow, big/large, small/little, slow, fast, hot, cold, warm, cool, new, old (new), young, old (young), good, bad, wet, dry, sick, healthy, loud, quiet, happy, sad, beautiful, ugly, deaf, blind, nice, mean, rich, poor, thick, thin, expensive, cheap, flat, curved, male, female, tight, loose, high, low, soft, hard, deep, shallow, clean, dirty, strong, weak, dead, alive, heavy, light (heavy), dark, light (dark), nuclear, famous

Note: For a few of these adjectives, you may need to learn your language’s word for “adjective” and add it in cases of ambiguity (i.e., to clean vs a clean room).

Pronouns: I, you (singular), he, she, it, we, you (plural, as in “y’all”), they.

Note: Make sure you read about these in your grammar book before adding them. Languages divide their pronouns into many categories. Hungarian, for instance, has six words for “you” (singular informal, singular formal (for acquaintances), singular official (for teachers, policemen, bureaucrats), plural informal, etc.), and depending upon how you count, Japanese either has no pronouns or tons of pronouns. We’ll need to have some pronouns now in order to deal with grammar later, so you’ll want to find at least a few words to refer to yourself or someone else. You’ll find a good explanation of pronouns (and a list of them) in the beginning of your grammar book. Note that you don’t yet need him, her, his, their, etc. We’ll get them later, when we discuss grammar.

How do you learn these without translations? Use pictures of people pointing at themselves/each other. There are decent pronoun pictures on Google Images, and I’ve gotten some better ones commissioned here. Use these images, and if your language, like Hungarian, has different sorts of pronouns for different sorts of relationships (i.e., friends vs acquaintances), then take a few minutes to think of some people you’d use these pronouns with. Use their names on your flashcards.

 Susi:

Kategorya ng mga salita (I.E. 'Hayop') ay itinalaga sa isang maliit tinitikan C (GanitoC). Alamin ang mga salitang ito salita sa pamamagitan ng paggamit 2-3 iba pang mga larawan / mga salita sa iyong flashcards (I.E. 'Hayop = aso, pusa, fish ... ').

Madaling Confounded Mga Larawan (ibig sabihin, 'Babae' kamukha 'anak na babae') ay itinalaga ang isang asterisk (Ganito*). Ang mga ito ay mga grupo ng mga salita na gagamitin ng halos katulad na mga imahe (batang babae / anak na babae, kasal / kasal). Alamin ang mga salitang ito sa pamamagitan ng pagdaragdag ng isang personal na ugnayan (ibig sabihin, ang pangalan ng isang 'anak na babae' maaaring kilala mo) o ng isang karagdagang salita o dalawa sa iyong target na wika (ibig sabihin,iha Baka pumunta sa ina / ama).

Hayop: aso, pusa, isda, ibon, baka, baboy, mouse, kabayo, pakpak, hayopC

Transportasyon: tren, eroplano, kotse, trak, bisikleta, bus, bangka, barko, gulong, gasolina, makina, (tren) tiket, transportasyonC

Kinalalagyan: lungsod, bahay, apartment, kalye / kalsada, paliparan, istasyon ng tren, tulay, hotel, restawran, bukid, hukuman, paaralan, opisina, kuwarto, bayan, unibersidad, klab, bar, parke, kampo, tindahan / shop, teatro, aklatan, ospital, simbahan, merkado, bansa (Amerika, Pransiya, at iba pa), gusali, lupa, puwang (outer space), bangko, kinalalagyanC

Pananamit: may, magdamit, terno, palda, kamiseta, T-shirt, pantalon, mga sapatos na pang-, bulsa, sako, sirain ang puri, pananamitC

Kulay: pula, berde, asul (liwanag / madilim), dilaw, kayumanggi, rosas, kahel, itim, puti, kulay-abo, kulayC

Mga tao: nito *, anak na babae *, ina, ama, magulang (= Ina / ama), sanggol, tao, babae, kapatid na lalaki *, kapatid na babae *, pamilya, lolo, lola, asawa *, asawa *, hari, reyna, pangulo, kapwa, batang lalaki, batang babae, anak (= Batang lalaki / babae), matanda (= Lalaki / babae), pantao (≠ hayop), kaibigan (Magdagdag ng pangalan ng isang kaibigan), sakripisiyo, manlalaro, bentilador, karamihan ng tao, taoC

Trabaho: Guro, mag-aaral, abogado, doktor, pasyente, weyter, sekretarya, pari, pulis, hukbo, kawal, pintor, may-akda, tagapamahala, reporter, aktor, trabahoC

Lipunan: relihiyon, langit, impyerno, kamatayan, gamot, pera, dolyar, kuwenta, kasal *, kasal *, koponan, lahi (lahi), pagtatalik (ang kilos), pagtatalik (kasarian), pagpatay ng tao, bilangguan, teknolohiya, lakas, noon ay, kapayapaan, bumanat, halalan, mag-asin, pahayagan, lason, baril, isport, lahi (isport), magsanay, bola, laro, presyo, kontrata, gamot, pumirma, agham, Diyos

Sining: banda, kanta, instrumento (musikal), musika, pelikula, sining

Inumin: kape, tsaa, alak, serbesa, juice, tubig, gatas, pampalamig na inuminC

Pagkain: itlog, keso, tinapay, sopas, keyk, manok, baboy, karne ng baka, mansanas, saging, kahel, limon, kalyo, kanin, langis, magbigay ng binhi, kutsilyo, kutsara, tinidor, plato, tasa, almusal, tanghalian, hapunan, asukal, asin, bote, pagkainC

Tahanan: talahanayan, upuan, kama, panaginip, bintana, sa pamamagitan ng, silid-tulugan, kusina, banyo, lapis, panulat, litrato, sabon, aklat, pahina, susi, pintahan, sulat, nota, pader, papel, palapag, kisame, bubong, pool, ikandado, telepono, hardin, bakuran, karayom, supot, kahon, regalo, kard, singsing, kasangkapan

Elektronika: orasan, lampara, bentilador, cell phone, network, computer, programa (computer), kandungan, tabing, camera, telebisyon, radyo

Katawan: ulo, leeg, mukha, balbas, buhok, mata, bibig *, lip *, ilong, ngipin, tainga, pilasin (ilaglag), dila, likod, sa, daliri, paa, kamay, binti, braso, balikat, puso, dugo, utak, tuhod, magpapawis, sakit, buto, boses, balat, katawan

Kalikasan: alinman *, karagatan *, ilog, bundok, ulan, snow, puno, araw, gumala, mundo, Lupa, kagubatan, langit, halaman, hangin, lupa / earth, bulaklak, lambak, ugat, dagat-dagatan, bituin, damo, dahon, himpapawid, buhangin, dalampasigan, alon, sunog, yelo, isla, burol, init, kalikasanC

Kagamitan: salamin, metal, plastik, kahoy, bato, brilyante, luwad, alikabok, ginto, tanso, pilak, materyalC

Math / sukat: metro, sentimetro, kilo, pulgada, paa, pound, kalahati, bilog, parisukat, temperatura, petsa, timbang, gilid, sulok

Misc Nouns: mapa, tuldok, katinig, patinig, liwanag, tunog, oo, hindi, piraso, sakit, pinsala, butas, larawan, huwaran, pangngalanC, pandiwaC, pang-uriC

Nota: Gamitin ang mga huling tatlong (pangngalan, pandiwa, pang-uri) bilang mga tatak upang makatulong na makilala sa pagitan ng napaka-katulad na anyo salita (ibig sabihin, sa (pandiwa), kamatayan (pangngalan), patay (pang-uri))

Direksyon: tuktok, ilalim, gilid, harap, likod, sa labas, sa loob, pataas, pababa, pakaliwa, karapatan, tuwid, hilaga, timog, silangan, kanluran, direksiyonC

Nota: Maaaring hindi mo makita ang lahat ng mga ito sa iyong glossary, at maaari kang magkaroon ng problema sa paghahanap ng mga larawan kahit na gawin mo. Iyon ay pinong. Laktawan ang mga ito para sa ngayon, or use my collection of images for directions and prepositions at Fluent-Forever.com/Appendix5

Seasons: Tag-araw, Tagsibol, Taglamig, Mahulog, panahonC

Mga Numero: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 30, 31, 32, 40, 41, 42, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 62, 70, 71, 72, 80, 81, 82, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101, 102, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 10000, 100000, milyon, bilyon, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4ika, 5ika, numeroC

Nota: Kung kang maghanap para sa isang numero (isa (isa), dalawa (dalawa), tatlo (tatlo)), makikita mo ang mga larawan ng bagay (1 mansanas, 2 monkeys, at iba pa). Ito ay karaniwang gumagana hanggang 10. Pagkatapos ay hanapin ang mga digit (10, 11, 12). Makakakita ka ng mga makukulay na numeral, address palatandaan, atbp. Gamitin ang mga larawan (larawan ng hotel room #33) sa halip ng teksto (#33); mga larawan mas madali upang matandaan at hindi sila makapag-mixed up bilang madali.

Buwan: Enero, Pebrero, Marso, Abril, Mayo, Hunyo, Hulyo, Agosto, Setyembre, Oktubre, Nobyembre, Disyembre

Nota: Makikita mo karaniwang mahanap ang mga larawan ng mga pista opisyal at panahon. Idagdag sa bilang ng bawat buwan (#1-12) upang makakuha ng mas tiyak.

Araw ng linggo: Lunes, Martes, Miyerkules, Huwebes, Biyernes, Sabado, Linggo

Nota: Makikita mo karaniwang mahanap ang mga larawan ng mga tao ng pagpunta sa gumana sa Lunes at pakikisalu-salo sa Biyernes / Sabado, atbp. Upang makakuha ng mas tiyak, gumamit ng isang imahe ng isang lingguhang kalendaryo sa weekend grey out at ipahiwatig kung aling mga araw na nais mong. I’ll find a few good calendars to use and post them dito in the near future.

Oras: taon, buwan, linggo, araw, oras, minuto, pangalawa , umaga, hapon, gabi, gabi, orasC

Nota: Makakakita ka ng mga larawan ng Orasan at mga kalendaryo. Kung kinakailangan, tukuyin ang bawat oras na paghahati sa mga tuntunin ng isa pang paghahati ng oras, I.E. 60 x minuto = 1 ___ (ngayon), 1 ngayon = 60 x ____ (minuto).Huwag mag-alala tungkol sa mga form na pangmaramihang (hindi mo kailangan ang salita para sa "minuto" pa)

Pandiwa: magtrabaho, maglaro, maglakad, tumakbo, magmaneho, lumipad, lumangoy, pumuntaC, itigil, sundin, mag-isip, magsalita / sabihin, kumain, uminom, pumatay, ang, ngumiti, tumawa, mag-iiyak, bumili *, magbayad *, ibenta *, bumaril(ng baril), malaman, tumalon, amoy, marinig * (isang tunog), makinig * (musika), panlasa, pindutin, makita (isang ibon), panoorin (Telebisyon), halik, sumunog, unti-unting mawala, magparinig, sumabog, umupo, tumayo, pag-ibig, magdaan, putulin, makipag-away, humiga, sumayaw, matulog, gumising, pag-awit, bilangin, magpakasal, manalangin, manalo, mawala, ihalo / gumalaw, yumuko, maghugas, magluto, buksan, isara, sumulat, tumawag, lumiko, magtayo, magturo, lumago, gumuhit, magpakain, sumakay, magtapon, linisin, mahanap, mahulog, itulak, paghila, magdala, mabasag, magsuot, sabit, pag-iling, pumirma, matalo, iangat

Nota: Para sa pandiwa, makikita mo marahil kailangan upang matuto nang salita ng iyong wika para sa "pandiwa" at idagdag ito sa anumang mga pandiwa na maaaring pagbabalatkayo bilang isang pangngalan (sa halik vs isang halik). Talaga, kumuha ng isang larawan ng dalawang tao halik, idagdag ang salita “Pandiwa” sa ilalim, at poof, mayroon kang isang medyo malinaw “upang magmano.”

Adjectives: matagal, maikli (matagal), matangkad, maikli (vs matangkad), malawak, makitid, malaki / malaki, maliit / kaunti, pabagalin, mabilis, mainit, malamig, mainit-init, malamig, bago, luma (bago), bata, luma (bata), mabuti, masama, basa, tuyo, may sakit, malusog, malakas, tahimik, masaya, malungkot, maganda, mainit ang ulo, bingi, bulag, maganda, ibig sabihin, mayaman, dukha, makapal, manipis, mahal, mura, patag, hindi tuwid, lalaki, babae, lapat na lapat, magpakawala, mataas, mababa, malambot, matapang, malalim, mababaw, linisin, marumi, malakas, mahina, patay, buhay, mabigat, liwanag (mabigat), madilim, liwanag (madilim), nuklear, tanyag

Nota: Para sa ilan sa mga adjectives, maaaring kailanganin mong dagdagan ang salita ng iyong wika para sa "pang-uri" at idagdag ito sa mga kaso ng kalabuan (ibig sabihin, upang linisinkumpara sa isang linisin kuwarto).

Pronouns: Ako, mo (isahan), siya, siya, ito, kami, mo (maramihan, as in “y’all”), sila.

Nota: Tiyaking basahin ang tungkol sa mga ito sa iyong grammar libro bago idagdag ang mga ito. Mga Wika hatiin ang kanilang mga pronouns sa maraming mga kategorya. Hanggaryan, halimbawa, May anim mga salita para sa "ikaw" (Isahan impormal, isahan pormal (para sa mga kakilala), isahan opisyal (para sa mga guro, policemen, bureaucrats), pangmaramihang impormal, at iba pa), at depende sa kung paano mo bilangin, Hapon ay may alinman sa hindi pronouns otonelada ng pronouns. Kakailanganin naming magkaroon ng ilang mga pronouns ngayon upang harapin ang grammarmamaya, kaya makikita mo nais upang mahanap ang hindi bababa sa ilang mga salita upang sumangguni sa iyong sarili o sa ibang tao. Makakakita ka ng isang magandang paliwanag ng pronouns (at isang listahan ng mga ito) sa simula ng iyong grammar aklat. Tandaan na hindi mo pag kailangan pa sa kanya, kanya, kanya, nila, atbp. Gagamitin namin ang mga ito sa ibang pagkakataon, kapag namin talakayin ang grammar.

Paano ka matuto nang walang mga pagsasalin? Gumamit ng mga larawan ng mga tao na tumuturo sa kanilang mga sarili / isa't isa. May disenteng panghalip larawan sa Google Images, and I’ve gotten some better ones commissioned here. Gamitin ang mga larawan, at kung ang iyong wika, tulad ng Hungarian, May iba't ibang mga klase ng pronouns para sa iba't ibang mga klase ng relasyon (ibig sabihin, mga kaibigan kumpara sa mga kakilala), pagkatapos ay tumagal ng ilang minuto upang isipin na ang ilang mga tao na gusto mong gamitin ang mga pronouns na may. Gamitin ang kanilang mga pangalan sa iyong flashcards.